KLA Instruments Technical Literature
KLA Instruments products are used to generate valuable defect inspection and metrology data across a wide range of industrial and academic applications. We encourage our customers and Application Engineers to share their knowledge and expertise through application notes and technical papers. Delve deeper into applications and tool capabilities by studying a variety of materials.
For Tencor® and P-Series stylus profilers, the full-diameter profile measurement can be taken before and after film deposition to calculate the induced thin film stress. Hardware and software usage recommendations are also included.
The depth of SIMS craters generated by ion beam milling is used to determine the concentration of impurities. The objective of this application note is to present a technique to accurately measure the depth of shallow SIMS craters using a stylus profiler.
The R54 Series sheet resistance mappers are available in either a four-point probe (4PP) or eddy current (EC) configuration and in either a 200mm or 300mm version. 4PP maps of sheet resistance can help identify ion implant process shifts and characterize the laser annealing process. Probe qualification tests and I-V curve monitoring are also discussed.
Tapes, glues and other adhesive elastomers are used extensively in industry, and mechanical stress to these polymer materials may ultimately lead to system inefficiency or failure. To measure the tack (pull-off) force, the iMicro nanoindenter was used to characterize soft adhesive polymers that are especially important to the semiconductor industry.
The KLA Instruments iMicro nanoindenter is used to measure the near-surface indentation hardness of Fe14Cr. Both the irradiated and control Fe14Cr are analyzed using the iMicro nanoindentation test method “Advanced Dynamic E and H" to generate continuous measurement of both Young’s modulus and Vickers hardness.
The KLA Instruments Nano Indenter® G200 and iMicro nanoindenter were used to provide a large range of loads required for testing the fracture toughness (Kc) of NbC, sapphire, VC, TiC, ZrC, WC, borosilicate glass, and Plexiglass (PMMA). The Stiffness Mapping technique on the G200 NanoVision Stage enabled the capture of the full length of fine cracks for the most accurate measurements of Kc.
Silicon wafer thickness can be easily and quickly measured using Filmetrics® spectral reflectometers with high resolution near-infrared (NIR) spectrometers. The Filmetrics F3-sX system family uses NIR light to measure layer thickness, even many layers that are visibly opaque, such as semiconductors.
Porous semiconductors (PS) are used in applications ranging from optical devices to gas sensors, and properties impacting PS performance include layer thickness and porosity, either in single or periodic multilayers. Other important properties relate to processed PS layers, such as the fraction of impregnated materials and the amount of adsorbed molecules in sensing devices.
Coatings continue to play a critical role in eyeglass performance, appearance and durability. The Filmetrics F10-AR is the first instrument designed for simple, affordable testing of ophthalmic anti-reflection (AR) coatings and hardcoats, enabling line operators to make conclusive readings in seconds and with only minutes of training.
A typical OLED structure includes multiple specialized layers: Hole Injection Layers, Hole Transport Layers and Recombination/ Emission layers. All these layers contain optically complex organic molecules. OLED properties also enable flexible displays, which may require measurement on highly birefringent substrates such as PET. The Filmetrics® F20-UV and F40-UV instruments offer inexpensive, robust and non-invasive metrology for simple prototype devices to fully pixelated displays.
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) and OLEDs rely on transparent conductive oxides (TCOs) to transport current, and it is important to know the thickness of the layers that form the display. For LCDs, the F-series systems can measure the polyimide and LC layers, while for OLEDs, they measure the emitting, injecting and encapsulation layers.
Monitoring the doping level is critical in controlling TOPCon process quality, since solar cell performance depends on the careful balance between conductivity, contact resistance and recombination rate. Four-point probe (4PP) sheet resistance (Rs) measurement can provide direct electrical properties like carrier mobility and contact resistance, which makes it an indispensable monitoring term in the TOPCon process.
Perovskite’s excellent optoelectronic properties are beneficial to solar cell technology, especially promising when applied to flexible solar cells and tandem solar cells. The P-Series stylus profilers are used to measure 3D topography and step height for TCO, ETL and metal electrode layers of perovskite solar cell (PSC) devices.
Derived from polymers, engineering foams are widely used across industries such as automotive, aerospace, construction, electronics and healthcare. The microstructure of engineering foams is highly complex and spans multiple length scales. Mechanical characterization of these hierarchical materials is important for understanding bulk material behavior. For various foam types, the iMicro was used to measure elastic modulus, deformation energy and elastic recovery.
High-speed nanoindentation using the INano® with NanoBlitz 3D was used to map the local hardness of an electroplated Cu layer. The crystallographic evolution of electroplated Cu was identified and mapped with EBSD using field-emission scanning electron microscopy, then compared with iNano hardness maps that revealed significant differences between the nanograin regions and the micrograin regions.
Friction and wear behavior is important for determination of the critical parameters that may cause damage to dental enamel during various clinical procedures. The Nano Indenter® G200 was used to characterize the nano-tribological behavior of the dental enamel as a function of acid etching.
The F10-HC measures outer hardcoat layers and inner anti-fog layers for the polycarbonate lenses and scratch-resistant coatings on the base reflector plate. The F10-HC with the handheld contact probe is ideal for the coating lab as a quality check on the coating process.
Though simple and quick, spin coating SU-8 can be an inaccurate method for yielding a desired thickness. Since exposure time is dependent on resist thickness, and since positive and negative photoresists can be used in conjunction to create complex multilayer structures, accurate measurement of the thickness of each layer becomes extremely important.
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) and OLEDs rely on transparent conductive oxides (TCOs) to transport current, and it is important to now the thickness of the layers that form the display. For LCDs, the F-series systems can measure the polyimide and LC layers, while for OLEDs, they measure the emitting, injecting and encapsulation layers.
Electronic device failure analysis (EDFA) is used for wafer backside thinning, where the thinned silicon substrate is transmissive at near-infrared (NIR) wavelengths. The F20-NIR can measure thinned silicon, and the F3-sX can measure thick layers, up to 1.5mm.
The Zeta-20 optical profiler is available with an integrated diamond scribe for marking defect areas to be easily located for further analysis by FIB-SEM SEM, AFM or other analytical techniques.
An overview of nanoindentation as it applies to battery manufacturing and battery materials research. Topics include battery cell manufacturing, cathode load response, nanomechanical mapping of composite electrodes, in situ particle compression, viscoelastic response of binder materials, and alternative battery materials testing environments.
Guidelines on geometries and recommended applications for different nanoindentation tips, including Berkovich, Vickers, Cube-Corner, Cone, and Sphere.
The Zeta™️ optical profiler is ideally suited for 3D measurement at various stages of solar device manufacturing, including metrology of solar cell texture and topography of busbars and finger lines. Other process step characterization by Zeta 3D optical profilers includes diamond wire topography, mono-silicon and polysilicon wafer bow, roughness, and roll-off, AR coating thickness and reflectance, and laser groove topography.
This work investigates the nanomechanical and elastic properties of a lithium/polymer composite battery cathode, measured by nanoindentation mapping to correlate the life cycle, charge/discharge cycles to the nanomechanical properties of the battery electrode.
The Nano Indenter® G200 is used with a customizable NanoSuite test method to analyze the integrity of a MEMS-fabricated IC wafer probe; specifically, to determine the magnitude of shear force that the probe can withstand without breaking off its support structure.
The KLA Instruments optical profilers utilize a number of different objective lenses, depending on the system configuration and the application. This application note discusses different objective types and the various factors affecting magnification and resolution.
The Filmetrics® F20, F40 and F3-CS Thin-Film Analyzers are used for thickness and uniformity measurement of parylene coatings, which are widely used in the biomedical industry due to their unique properties.
The Filmetrics® F20 and F40 Thin-Film Analyzers use spectral reflectance technology for layer thickness measurement of different types of coatings used on medical devices. This discussion includes thickness measurement of a pharmacological coating on a medical stent, thickness of a polymer wire coating, and angioplasty balloon wall thickness.
The Filmetrics® F10-RT-UVX was used to measure a multilayer dielectric stack of unknown materials, resolving not only the number of layers and the index of refraction of the high index material, but the thickness of each individual layer.
The Filmetrics® F10-RT Thin-Film Analyzer was used to measure the index of refraction of graphene, using the simultaneous capture of reflectance and transmittance spectra. The F50 thin film mapping tool was used to measure and map graphene monolayer and bilayer uniformity across an entire wafer.
The KLA Instruments Zeta-20 was used to map and compare the surface topography of Halloween candy favorites, including M&Ms, Bit-O-Honey, Reese’s peanut butter cups, Heath Bars, Jolly Ranchers, Skittles, Snickers, SweeTarts, Kit Kat bars, Lemonheads, candy corn, and bubblegum. Yum!
Instrumented nanoindentation is used to measure elasticity and strength of bone at the level of individual osteons. Elastic modulus and nanoindenter hardness testing are performed by analyzing the contact stiffness as a continuous function of penetration depth.
The NanoFlip indentation system was used to compress glass microspheres within an SEM chamber. At an elastic strain of 0.2%, the measured Young’s modulus fits exactly within the expected range for soda-lime glass. The results are enhanced by in situ SEM images which reveal both plastic yield and fracture.
KLA Instruments™ Tencor® P-Series stylus profilometers offer pattern recognition capability for automated surface analysis. This application note describes pattern recognition and its usage for automated sample alignment for the Tencor P-7, P-17, P-170, and HRP-260 profilometers.
The R50 and R54 Series sheet resistance mappers are available in either a four-point probe (4PP) or eddy current (EC) configuration. These two mapping techniques are discussed, along with their use for mapping sheet resistance and thickness of metals films, including chromium and aluminum.
The Zeta-20 optical profiler provides a quick, non-destructive method for measuring the profile and depth of high aspect ratio trenches to characterize the lag effect of reactive ion etching (RIE).
The Zeta-Series optical profilers provide accurate measurement and automated analysis of high aspect ratio structures such as HEMT vias using non-destructive and high throughput metrology techniques.
This application note discusses components and technologies specific to the KLA Instruments stylus profilers, including topography measurement, force control, scanning mechanism, stylus types and dimensions, and stylus profilometry applications.
Multi-Step Analysis is a new automated algorithm that automatically measures step height/trench depth for up to 30 features along a scan profile, including automatic cursor placement. This capability significantly improves time-to-results and removes measurement variability relative to previous manual methods.
Many of the KLA Instruments Nano Indenter® systems include the capability to measure electromechanical properties. This paper discusses use of the I-V Option for studying Pyrolytic Carbon (PyC).
Stylus profilers from KLA Instruments are available with advanced 2D/3D surface analysis software to provide additional insight into profilometer measurement data. The Apex software includes data processing, analysis, visualization and reporting capabilities for both 2D profiles and 3D topography.
Zeta™ 3D optical profilers are used to measure surface roughness of N95 face masks, sapphire wafers for LED devices, and porous chucks. An overview of Zeta measurement technology is also included.
The Zeta-20 optical profiler with ZDot™ technology was used to measure open channel and closed channel microfluidics devices, including step height and surface roughness inside the channel.
The topography sensor is one component of the stylus measurement head, which is used to track the surface of the sample being measured. Three major sensor types are LVDT, Optical Lever and LVDC, and this application note discusses the design of each.
KLA Instruments™ stylus profilometers may be used with different styli to optimize measurements for specific applications. The KLA Instruments profilers, including the Alpha-Step® D-Series, Tencor® P-Series and High Resolution Profiler (HRP®) Series all use the same stylus design. This application note discusses the various types of styli available for these stylus profilometers and typical applications for their use.
When using the Tencor® P-7, P-17 and P-170, and HRP®-260 surface profilometers, the user sets up scan recipes which include calculations of various 3D surface metrology measurement parameters, including surface roughness. This application note provides mathematical detail regarding the equations used to generate the parameter values.
When using the Tencor® P-7, P-17 and P-170, and HRP®-260 surface profilometers, the user sets up scan recipes which include calculations of various 2D surface metrology measurement parameters, including surface roughness. This application note provides mathematical detail regarding the equations used to generate the parameter values.
The Zeta™ optical profilometer has the advantage of providing uniform lateral resolution without contacting potentially delicate surface features. KLA Instruments’ proprietary ZDot™ technology utilizes a structured illumination technique to enhance the vertical resolution of the objective lens of the Zeta optical microscopes. This application note discusses ZDot technology and its usage and applications.
A KLA Instruments nanoindenter is used with the NanoBlitz 3D option to perform nanoindentation hardness testing on Scalmalloy, a commercial aluminum alloy specifically designed for laser-powder-bed additive manufacturing. NanoBlitz 3D maps of the Scalmalloy cross-section clearly illustrate the layered 3D metal printing process, with a bimodal hardness distribution and a Gaussian modulus distribution.
Using the test method ‘Complex Shear Modulus of Biomaterials’, a KLA Instruments nanoindenter performs nanoindentation testing on edible gelatin. Theory, sample preparation and measurement technique are discussed.
The nanomechanical and topographic properties of UVC-exposed N95 respirator filtration fibers are investigated using a KLA Instruments Nano Indenter G200X with CSM and survey scanning options, with topography characterized and measured by a Zeta™-20 optical profiler. The G200X NanoVision scanning image coupled with nanoindentation placement capability allows Young's modulus and nanoindentation hardness testing on individual fibers.
A KLA Instruments Nano Indenter® G200 was used for material characterization of both bare M42 steel and its TiN coating. Nanoindentation testing included ISO 14577 semi-static tests and Continuous Stiffness Measurement (CSM) tests.
The iMicro nanoindenter was used to generate stress-strain curves for commercially pure titanium using the standard iMicro test method "Flat Punch on Metals for Stress-Strain." The flat-punch geometry is superior to the more commonly used sphere, because both the contact area and the volume of tested material remain constant throughout the nanoindentation test.
The KLA Instruments InSEM® HT high temperature nanoindenter was used for material characterization of Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) ZrN coatings on steel. NanoBlitz 3D was used to compare maps of hard coating modulus and hardness at both 400°C and 660°C.
A KLA Instruments Nano Indenter® system is used with the ProbeDMA™ nanoindentation technique to analyze the silicone gel coatings of two automotive MEMS-based pressure sensors. ProbeDMA takes advantage of Continuous Stiffness Measurement (CSM) to provide quantitative results for both DMA (storage) modulus and contact stiffness for the two sensors.
The Nano Indenter® G200 is used to study the extent of layer damage from charged iron particles and protons into the bulk of irradiated HCM12A steel by measuring indentation hardness as a function of penetration depth.
A KLA Instruments Nano Indenter® was used with NanoBlitz 3D high speed mapping for elastic modulus and nanohardness testing of the bond coat, top coat and interface regions of as-coated and thermally-cycled thermal barrier coatings (TBCs). Excellent correlation was found between the microstructure and the local nanomechanical properties at the micrometer length scale, even at the interface between the various layers of TBC and in the porous top coat.
A KLA Instruments-developed technique was used for measuring the storage and loss modulus of artificial tissue samples using dynamic nanoindentation on a KLA Nano Indenter® G200. Tests were performed using the Continuous Stiffness Measurement (CSM) option, which allows for frequency-specific, dynamic nanoindentation, which provides better spatial resolution for material characterization than traditional bulk DMA analysis.
Ten different materials are tested with the KLA Instruments iNano® nanoindenter in accordance with ISO 14577-1, including polymers, metals, glasses and single crystals. The same test method measuring Young's modulus values also automatically determines instrumented nanoindentation hardness and the converted Vickers Hardness Number (VHN).
A Nano Indenter® G200X system was used to perform impact nanoindentation testing on aluminum, iron, stainless steel, and commercial purity magnesium. Hardness testing as a function of strain rate was compared for these materials using the ISO 14577 test method and Constant Load and Hold (CLH) testing.
The Student’s t-test is used in an uncommon way to predict the number of observations, N, which must be made in order to be sensitive to a given difference at a given confidence level. With respect to nanoindentation, this analysis illuminates the benefits of the ultra-fast testing afforded by the Express Test option for the KLA Instruments Nano Indenter® G200 to dramatically improve the sensitivity to significant difference.
A KLA Instruments nanoindenter utilizing the hot stage, the Continuous Stiffness Measurement (CSM) option and the “Dynamic CSR for Thin Films” test method was used for measuring Young’s modulus and indentation hardness of optical coatings on fused silica substrates. Results were compared for two optical coatings at 22°C, 150°C and 300°C.
The Nano Indenter® G200 is used with the Express Test and the laser-heated tip and stage options for elastic modulus and indentation hardness testing of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) paste at temperatures from 20°C to 250°C. NanoVision was also used to generate surface topography measurements.
The interface adhesion energy of low k films is measured using the ISO 14577 standard nanoindentation method with a decremental loading factor. Analysis of the load-displacement curves determined the load at crack initiation/delamination at the film/substrate interface, and the energy dissipated during nanoindentation near the critical load.
A KLA Instruments nanoindenter is used to perform local dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) testing on SBR, mounted inside a cold chamber. The ProbeDMA™ nanoindentation testing method measures frequency-specific viscoelastic material properties, and is used here to compare the storage modulus of SBR as a function of temperature and frequency.
This paper, co-authored by Warren C. Oliver and originally published in Materials and Design, discusses high speed nanoindentation mapping as applied to thermal barrier coatings (TBCs). Extensive nanoindentation tests are performed using NanoBlitz 3D to spatially map the indentation hardness and elastic modulus of the bond coat, top coat and bond coat-top coat interface regions of as-coated and thermally cycled TBCs. The resulting spatial property maps are compared with the corresponding microstructures to establish correlations.
This paper, co-authored by Warren C. Oliver and originally published in Materials and Design, discusses high speed nanoindentation mapping using NanoBlitz 3D for local nanomechanical testing of multi-phase alloys and small volumes of materials with high throughput. To determine the minimum spacing between indents required to prevent interactions from neighboring indents, extensive nanoindentation experiments and finite element simulations are performed.
Author: Dr. Diane Hickey-Davis, Dr. Ian Holton
Publication: Commercial Micro Manufacturing International Vol 9 No.1
Author: Dr. Diane Hickey-Davis
Publication: Commercial Micro Manufacturing International Vol 9 No.3
Author: Vamsi Velidandla, et. al.
Publication: 37th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (2011)
Author: Dr. Ian Holton
Publication: Commercial Micro Manufacturing International Vol 6 No.1
Author: Nelluri Srinivas, et. al.
Publication: South Asian Journal of Engineering and Technology Vol.1, No.1 (2015) 41–45
Author: Vamsi Velidandla, et. al.
Publication: 37th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (2011)
A Nano Indenter® G200 system equipped for ultra-low force indentation with Dynamic Contact Module (DCM), NanoVision, and Continuous Stiffness Measurement (CSM) options was used for material characterization of a nanoporous low k film on a silicon substrate. Dynamic imaging and stiffness mapping was used to measure crack length to determine both the fracture toughness and failure “fingerprints” of the low k films.
A Nano Indenter® G200 is used to determine the scratch and wear properties of ten spin-coated low k films on silicon substrates. A ramp-load scratch test is performed, with a single line scan of the coating surface collected before and after the scratch test to determine residual deformation. The NanoVision stage is used to provide high resolution positioning capability for the nanoindentation testing.
The brittle-to-ductile transition (BDT) of single-crystal silicon (SC-Si) is studied using the Nano Indenter® G200 with the laser heating option. The plasticity transition and creep behavior are characterized by comparing the nanoindentation loading-unloading curves for temperatures up to 500°C.
The Nano Indenter® G200 is used with the Dynamic Contact Module (DCM) transducer and NanoVision options for nanomechanical testing of both dry and hydrated endothelial cells. High resolution NanoVision images were also generated to compare cells before and after hydration.
NanoVision is used with the KLA Instruments G200 and G200X nanoindenters to generate high resolution nanoindentation images in order to examine residual impressions and quantify material response phenomena such as pile-up, deformed volume and fracture toughness.
The Nano Indenter® G200 can be used with a laser heated tip and high temperature stage for nanomechanical testing and material characterization at precisely controlled temperatures. Temperature-dependent data are shown for a number of sample materials.
Express Test is a method of rapid nanomechanical testing used with a KLA Instruments nanoindenter to generate histograms and 3D maps of nanomechanical properties, such as Young's modulus and nanohardness, with negligible thermal drift.
This application note discusses the Continuous Stiffness Measurement (CSM) nanoindentation option, used for applications that must take into account dynamic effects, such as strain rate and frequency. The CSM option for material characterization offers a means of separating the in-phase and out-of-phase components of the load-displacement history.
Nanoindentation creep measurements of Al1100 are made with the KLA Instruments InSEM® HT nanoindenter, which allows for independent tip and sample heating to maintain isothermal testing conditions. Results show that nanoindentation measurements can yield uniaxial creep properties that are in excellent agreement with traditional creep testing.
Dynamic instrumented indentation was used to measure the complex shear modulus of soft biological tissue under physiological conditions. Continuous Stiffness Method (CSM) nanoindentation was used with the hot stage option to compare the complex shear modulus and confirm the anisotropic nature of muscle tissue.
Instrumented Indentation Testing (IIT) or Depth-Sensing Indentation (DSI) has become the technique of choice for nanomechanical testing and material characterization. This paper discusses the Oliver-Pharr test method, theory and analysis for extraction of Young's modulus, hardness, complex modulus, stress exponent for creep, and fracture toughness.
A KLA Instruments nanoindenter using the Continuous Stiffness Measurement (CSM) option to measure the Young's modulus and nanoindentation hardness of three sol-gel coatings. Scratch tests were also performed to evaluate adhesion of the coatings. In the case of adhesive failure, NanoSuite Explorer was used to identify the critical load at failure.
Probe based Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (ProbeDMA™) nanomechanical testing was performed on cross sections of a rubber tire using the Continuous Stiffness Measurement (CSM) technique. The local storage and loss moduli were compared for different material structures along the cross sections.
Instrumented Indentation Testing (IIT) is used to measure strain rate sensitivity (SRS) of thin nickel and copper films on silicon. The Continuous Stiffness Measurement (CSM) nanoindentation option was also used in order to measure indentation hardness and elastic modulus as a continuous function of penetration depth.
Nanoindentation hardness testing was used to analyze ultra-thin gold films before and after vacuum annealing, deposited on two different substrates. NanoBlitz 3D and Express Test results showed a significant decrease in indentation hardness of the gold metal films.
A lamellar eutectic alloy was directionally solidified to achieve a microstructure of chromium silicide Cr3Si and a chromium-rich solid. A Nano Indenter® G200 equipped with NanoVision, the Dynamic Contact Module (DCM) and the Continuous Stiffness Measurement (CSM) option to generate nanoindentation surface maps of indentation hardness and Young's modulus of the multiphase material.